5.10 Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age

Industrial capitalism increased the standard of living for some through the creation of new job opportunities. The growth of factories and industrial centers created jobs for many people, particularly in urban areas. This led to the growth of cities and an increase in the number of people who were able to move away from rural areas and find work in urban factories.

The rise of industrial capitalism also led to an increase in wages for some workers. As the demand for labor increased, wages rose, allowing workers to earn more money and improve their standard of living. The rise of unions also helped to increase wages and improve working conditions for some workers.

In addition to these direct economic benefits, industrial capitalism also led to other improvements in living standards. The increased production of goods led to a greater variety of goods being available for purchase, allowing people to have access to a wider range of products. This also led to improvements in transportation, as the growth of factories and the increased demand for goods led to the development of new forms of transportation, such as railroads and steamships, making it easier for goods to be transported over long distances.

Living standards were increased through productivity. The invention and widespread use of new technologies, such as the steam engine, spinning jenny, and power loom, allowed for the mass production of goods at a much faster rate than before. This led to a decrease in the cost of goods, making them more affordable for a wider range of people.

However, it is important to note that not everyone benefited from the rise of industrial capitalism. Many people, particularly those in rural areas, were left behind as the economy shifted towards industrial production. Additionally, the working conditions in factories were often poor, and many workers, particularly those in low-paying jobs, were subject to long hours and poor working conditions. The rise of industrial capitalism also led to increased social inequality, as the gap between the rich and the poor grew.

Railroads, steamships, and the telegraph greatly facilitated exploration, development, and communication in interior regions around the world by providing efficient and reliable transportation and communication networks. Railroads allowed for the rapid and large-scale movement of people and goods, making it possible to settle and develop previously isolated regions. Steamships allowed for the rapid movement of goods and people across oceans and rivers, connecting interior regions to global markets and enabling the transport of heavy equipment and supplies needed for development. The telegraph allowed for the rapid transmission of information, making it possible to coordinate activities and respond quickly to changing conditions in remote regions. Together, these technologies greatly expanded the reach and capabilities of explorers, settlers, and businesses, and played a key role in the expansion and development of many countries. As a result, trade and migration were eased a lot.

The causation in this period can most easily be followed through three steps--ideological foundation, diffusion of rebellious mindset, and actual revolutions.

Enlightenment philosophies redefined understandings of the natural world and human interactions. They emphasized the power of reason, observation, and experimentation as the basis for knowledge and understanding.

In terms of natural science, enlightenment philosophers such as Francis Bacon and René Descartes emphasized the importance of systematic observation and experimentation as a means of understanding the natural world. They rejected traditional authority and superstition as sources of knowledge, and instead encouraged the use of scientific methods to study and understand the natural world. This approach laid the foundation for the development of modern science and the scientific method.

In terms of social and political relationships, enlightenment philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms and rejected the idea of the divine right of kings and absolute monarchies. They proposed new ways of understanding the relationship between government and individuals, and advocated for the idea of a "social contract" between government and the governed, and encouraged a society where people have the rights to life, liberty, and property. This approach laid the foundation for the development of modern democracy and human rights.

Nationalism

Nationalism motivated people to rebel by providing a sense of shared identity, culture, and purpose among the people living within a nation-state, and by creating a desire for self-rule and independence. One of the main ways in which nationalism motivated people to rebel was by creating a sense of shared identity and culture among the people living within a nation-state. Nationalism emphasized the importance of shared language, history, and traditions, and helped to create a sense of belonging and connection among the people living within a nation-state. This sense of shared identity and culture helped to create a sense of unity and purpose among the people and motivated them to take action to defend and promote their national interests. Nationalism also motivated people to rebel by creating a desire for self-rule and independence. Nationalists emphasized the importance of self-government and the right of the people to determine their own destiny, and this message resonated with many people living under foreign rule or in colonies. Nationalist movements emerged in many countries and colonies, demanding self-rule and independence, and this desire for self-rule and independence motivated many people to join. Finally, Nationalism also motivated people to rebel by creating a sense of pride in their own culture and nation, and by creating a sense of injustice and oppression when this culture or nation is being oppressed by another. This sense of pride and injustice created a desire to fight for the rights of their own culture and nation, and to rebel against any form of oppression, whether it is economic, social or political.

One of the main ways in which Enlightenment ideas diffused was through books and printed materials. Many enlightenment thinkers wrote books, pamphlets, and essays that were widely read and distributed throughout Europe and the Americas. The ideas of these enlightenment thinkers were also disseminated through newspapers and journals, which helped to spread the ideas to a wider audience. The growth of education, literacy, and the mass media also helped to spread enlightenment ideas. As more people became educated, they were able to read and understand the ideas of the enlightenment thinkers, and the mass media helped to disseminate these ideas to a wider audience. Enlightenment ideas established several traditions in everyday life.

1. The tradition of reason and rationality: Enlightenment thinkers emphasized the importance of reason and rationality, and this emphasis on reason and rationality became a tradition in everyday life. People began to question traditional beliefs and practices and rely on reason and evidence to make decisions and form opinions.

2. The tradition of individualism: Enlightenment ideas promoted the idea of individualism, and this emphasis on individual rights and freedom became a tradition in everyday life. People began to value their own autonomy and to see themselves as independent individuals rather than simply as members of a group or community.

3. The tradition of scientific inquiry: Enlightenment ideas emphasized the importance of scientific inquiry and the use of empirical evidence, and this emphasis on science and evidence-based thinking became a tradition in everyday life. People began to view the natural world and human society through a scientific lens and to rely on science and reason to understand the world around them.

4. The tradition of human rights: Enlightenment ideas emphasized the idea of human rights and the idea of equality before the law. This emphasis on human rights became a tradition in everyday life, and people began to demand equal rights and equality before the law.

5. The tradition of critical thinking and skepticism: Enlightenment ideas encouraged critical thinking and skepticism, which led to a tradition in everyday life of questioning authority and tradition, and seeking out evidence to support one's beliefs.

6. The tradition of religious toleration: Enlightenment ideas emphasized the importance of religious toleration and the separation of church and state, which led to a tradition of religious freedom and the protection of minority religions.

One of the main political factors that contributed to the spread of nationalism was the growth of the nation-state as a dominant form of political organization. The emergence of powerful centralized states in Europe and the Americas, along with the decline of empires and feudal systems, led to the formation of distinct national identities among the people living within these states. Economic factors also played a role in the spread of nationalism. The growth of capitalism and the development of modern industrial economies led to the formation of new social classes, such as the industrial working class, and the rise of economic nationalism, which emphasized the importance of economic self-sufficiency and protectionism. Social factors also contributed to the spread of nationalism. The growth of education, literacy and the mass media helped to create a sense of shared culture and identity among the people living within a nation-state. Additionally, the emergence of new forms of art and literature, such as romanticism, helped to create a sense of national identity and pride. Finally, colonialism and imperialism also contributed to the spread of nationalism in the colonies and territories under imperial control. The resistance against the colonial powers and the exposure to different cultures and ideas helped to fuel the emergence of nationalist movements in the colonies and the desire for self-rule and independence.

Given that Enlightenment and nationalist sentiments were spread, they quickly developed into rebellions, leading to the creation of new nation-states globally.

The American Revolution (1775-1783) was fought by the thirteen British colonies in North America against the British Empire, resulting in the formation of the United States of America as an independent nation. The French Revolution (1789-1799) resulted in the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy in France and the establishment of a republic. It also led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who went on to establish a vast empire across Europe. The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) was fought by enslaved Africans and Afro-Caribbeans in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which later became the independent nation of Haiti. The Latin American Wars of Independence (1810-1825) were a series of wars that resulted in the independence of several countries in Latin America, including Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Peru, from Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule. The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Indian Mutiny, was an attempt by Indian soldiers to overthrow British rule in India. Although it was ultimately unsuccessful, it marked a turning point in the relationship between Britain and India and led to the eventual dissolution of the British East India Company.